From 1898 to 1914, the German Empire administered the leasehold of Kiaochow Bay in Shandong Province and constructed the port city of Tsingtau as a self-proclaimed model colony. This paper studies the master plan for the construction of that city and believes that urban planning, although presented as a neutral tool of civil engineering, was in fact a method of colonial rule. The German administration divided the urban area into a European quarter, a Chinese business and residential area, and two peripheral workers' villages, and reinforced this spatial division with a separate legal code for Chinese residents only. Both measures were based on racist ideas and sought to demonstrate the technological superiority of Europeans over the native people. The paper also shows that the desired separation was never realised. German firms depended on Chinese merchants, wealthy Chinese families acquired property in the German quarter, German residents settled in Chinese districts, and German households relied on Chinese domestic servants. Negotiation with Chinese officials, missionary conflict, a commercial boycott, a joint German-Chinese college, and a hybrid architectural idiom all followed from this daily contact. Colonial Tsingtau is therefore better understood not as a unilateral projection of metropolitan power but as a negotiated space in which segregation on paper repeatedly gave way to interaction on the ground, producing an early bridgehead of Sino-German cultural exchange.

Health disparities constitute a long-standing public health crisis, reflecting consistent gaps in physical and mental outcomes between groups with unequal socioeconomic status. While biological predispositions and personal lifestyle choices partially account for divergence, such individual-level factors are largely conditioned by broader social environments and structural barriers. Drawing on the biopsychosocial model, this paper investigates the formation of ubiquitous inequalities driven by key social determinants: household income, educational attainment, occupational conditions, housing security, access to medical services and social support networks. This research constructs a quantitative conceptual framework to examine the interactive pathways through which cumulative social disadvantage amplifies psychological strain, unhealthy lifestyles and biological susceptibility. Monte Carlo simulation is adopted to model a heterogeneous population sample and estimate uncertainty in health risk distributions under distinct socioeconomic contexts and policy interventions. Modelling outcomes indicate that populations suffering from overlapping social disadvantages face substantially elevated health risks, especially when socioeconomic deprivation coincides with chronic mental stress and biological fragility. Further simulated policy tests reveal that expanding healthcare services and mitigating persistent psychosocial stress can alleviate health gaps to a limited extent yet fail to fully eradicate inequalities rooted in deep-seated structural disadvantage.

This paper critically examines the ethical and legal boundaries of compulsory vaccination during public health emergencies, arguing that mandates are not simply a clash between science and liberty but a fundamental exercise of state power over bodily autonomy. Drawing on Mill's harm principle, herd immunity, and the precautionary principle, I contend that coercion is justified only when four stringent conditions are met: an imminent, well-evidenced threat; a vaccine that substantially reduces transmission; the exhaustion of voluntary measures; and robust procedural safeguards, including medical exemptions, fixed review dates, and democratic oversight. Empirical evidence from European COVID-19 certification policies—which raised uptake but bred resentment—and Austria's failed blanket mandate demonstrates that effectiveness does not equate to legitimacy. Historical injustices such as the Tuskegee syphilis study and Henrietta Lacks's case reveal a deep epistemic deficit among marginalized communities, where justified distrust cannot be remedied by scientific facts alone. Thus, a morally defensible mandate must be preceded by active trust-repair, transparent dialogue, and acknowledgment of past wrongs. The conclusion rejects both absolute libertarianism and unchecked state coercion, insisting that emergency powers remain exceptional, proportional, and accountable. Ultimately, mandatory vaccination may be permissible in rare, severe crises, but only when the state bears a heavy burden of proof and respects individual dignity through institutional honesty and time-bound limitations.

The fast-growing generative artificial intelligence industry have brought unprecedented challenges to existing copyright rules, especially regard how developers utilise copyrighted literary, visual and coding works to train neural network models. Legal scholars long debated one core question: does building model weights in the training process constitute a copyrighted reproduction act as define by national copyright laws and international treaties? This paper compare two landmark verdicts released in recent years: the 2024 Ultraman AI copyright dispute judged by Hangzhou Internet Court in China, and Thomson Reuters v. Ross Intelligence ruled by the District Court of Delaware in the United States in 2025. Through case analysis and comparative legal research, this paper sort out different judicial attitudes toward three core technical acts: raw data ingestion, temporary data storage in computing memory, and final weight parameter fixation. The analysis show that Chinese judges adopt an output-centred judging logic, treating temporary storage of copyrighted content during training as an inevitable auxiliary technical step without independent infringement liability. By contrast, American courts conduct a full four-factor fair use test covering every stage of AI training workflow. To balance technological progress and creators' exclusive copyright benefits, this paper put forward a two-tier "market impact balancing test" for courts to judge reproduction disputes arising from AI weight training.

Currently, one of the elements of generative artificial intelligence that is rapidly advancing, is the training of AI using existing resources like text, images, audio, and video. Most of the training data are copyrighted resources that were collected without the rights holder's consent, and using such resources has resulted in an unprecedented and mass infringement of copyright. This has resulted in a global copyright crisis, and the legal and commercial challenges posed by this situation are foremost in the era of artificial intelligence. This paper analyzes the copyright infringement risks and the governance dilemmas of AI training data. Within this scope, it examines the lawsuits of media companies, content creators, and AI technology companies. The author employs a combination of methodologies such as case study, comparison, documentation, and normative legal study. Accordingly, the paper aims to identify the fundamental issues of copyright infringement in AI training data, the negative effects of such infringement on the copyright owner and the digital content value chain, and provide specific regulations for AI companies, copyright regulators, and governments.

As data has become a key factor of production, data property rights confirmation has emerged as a core issue in the development of the digital economy. The data property rights registration system transforms factual control into legal rights through registration, thereby performing the functions of ownership proof, information transparency, transaction security, and corporate compliance. However, the current data registration system faces practical dilemmas such as insufficient normative foundations (due to the absence of specialized high-level legislation) and inconsistencies in object definition (e.g., data resources, products, assets) and review mechanisms (formal vs. substantive). To address these issues, a dual-layer normative system of "legal empowerment and administrative regulation implementation" should be constructed, along with the unification of object classification standards and the introduction of a third-party substantive review mechanism. These reforms will promote the unification and standardization of the data property rights registration system, enhance its legal credibility, and facilitate the healthy development of the digital economy.

As artificial intelligence (AI) grows more sophisticated in the modern era, transnational commercial trade involving AI-generated content has become increasingly frequent, giving rise to complex intellectual property frictions among multinational enterprises. This essay focuses on the intellectual property dispute resolution mechanism under the framework of the "Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights" (TRIPS), and its applicability in the commercial application of AI. An extraterritorial study is conducted by taking the United States and the European Union as examples. Through case analysis, comparative research, and literature analysis, this study explores the current status and limitations of the dispute resolution mechanism among countries under the TRIPS framework, as well as the practical situation of international commercial arbitration in transnational technical disputes. The research finds that although the TRIPS agreement provides a fundamental multilateral legal framework, in resolving issues which are connected with works generated by artificial intelligence, the existing mechanism faces many challenges, including procedural lag, lack of relief measures at the enterprise level, and substantive uncertainty regarding the copyrightability of the output of artificial intelligence. It is necessary to enhance the flexibility of international commercial arbitration at the enterprise level and promote the modernization of TRIPS provisions to adapt to the technological reality of artificial intelligence.

From the last century to the present, whether consumer purchasing decisions are related to unconsciousness has always been a core issue. This article, as a literature review paper, systematically reviews the theoretical and empirical research on the relationship between unconscious priming, cognitive load, and consumer decision-making. The results of this review paper have found that unconscious priming mainly affects consumer decision-making through three pathways. High cognitive load enhances this effect through information presentation, product form, and the shopping platform environment, which decreases the ability to analyze rationally and then changes consumers' decision-making strategies. These findings indicate that the impact of unconscious priming on consumer decision-making is not determined by fixed factors alone but is also influenced by consumer cognitive load. This article not only represents theoretical contributions to the unconscious cognition of psychology, helping consumers better understand their own motivation, but also provides valuable strategic references for marketing practice, which helps to better understand consumer behavior and formulate more ethical strategies to improve the overall economy.

As the gap between formal ownership and actual control of contemporary corporations has widened, these de facto controllers have been using all sorts of unofficial channels to influence decision-making without being officially listed as directors or held majority ownership. Therefore, the problems of these controllers have become issues for corporate governance. This paper will examine the fiduciary duties of de facto controllers and compare the corresponding provisions in China's 2023 Company Law and Delaware corporate law. Determine who controls the company under the two legal systems, set limits on and examine compliance with fiduciary duties, and safeguard minority shareholders' interests against abuse of corporate control. A number of relevant provisions in the statute and cases from Delaware have also been collected and compiled for reference in this study. Based on the above comparison, China has created a more explicit statutory basis for regulating actual controllers, whereas Delaware has traditionally been more dependent on judicial development and fact-specific determinations of actual control. Delaware also offers stronger standards for judicial review and procedural safeguards in conflicted controller transactions at the same time. Based on the above comparison, this paper proposes that China further clarify the criteria for identifying de facto controllers, strengthen the standards for reviewing their conduct, enhance the protection of minority shareholders, and maintain flexibility in applying fiduciary duties.

Aging population has become an important social and political challenge to many countries, as they increasingly face a steady rise in the proportion of elderly populations. This paper will focus on how housing conditions, transportation access, healthcare availability, community services, digital accessibility, and spatial planning can have an effect on the elderly populations' ability to live safely and independently. This paper's analysis shows that "aging in place" policies may deepen spatial inequality when age-friendly improvements to housing, mobility, healthcare, and community support are not adequately provided, that even when physical infrastructure is improved, differences in income, family-care support, disability, and access to public services may continue to produce unequal outcomes among older adults. Furthermore, through a comparison of Canada, China, and Singapore, this will also paper show that aging policies must be adapted to different geographic, social, and institutional conditions. In short, effective "aging in place" policies should bring together physical infrastructure, community-based services, targeted financial support, and local participation so that the elderly populations can remain not only in their familiar places, but can do so feeling safe, connected, supported, and able to maintain a meaningful life.